Development of the Underclass in the 1990s

Development of the Underclass in the 1990s Critically evaluate the research evidence in support of the contention that Britain developed an underclass in the 1990s? What are the main differences between the use of underclass and the concept of social exclusion and why is the distinction important? Introduction The idea that society was stratified and inhabited by different classes of people dates back to the thought of Karl Marx. Marx saw capitalist society as exploitative and oppressive. Marx maintained that the conflicts between those who rule and those who are ruled, would eventually lead to changes in the economic system of a society (Marsh, I et al.2000). According to Marx the blame for class exploitation does not lie with individual capitalists but is inherent in capitalist systems . Conflict and tension are also evident in capitalist systems. These are especially evident between between different groups of wage earners and between the ruling classes these would intensify due to a number of developments, namely polarisation, homogenisation, and pauperisation (Marsh, I et al.2000). Polarisation, Marx believed, would occur as a result of increasing tension and hostility between the ruling class and the working class, within the groups individuals would become more like each other resulting in homogenisation, capitalists in their desire for expansion and workers in their reliance on work in factories rather than on traditional skills. The success of capitalism meant that wages need to be kept down and the gap widened between employers and workers. In this way workers are made poorer, or become unemployed and are pauperised. Marx believed that this would result in social revolution and the setting up of a new social system (Marsh, I et al.2000). This did not happen and such pauperization, it might be argued became the basis for what Charles Murray (1990) has termed the development of an underclass. This paper will evaluate evidence to assess whether and in what ways an underclass may be said to have developed in Britain during the 1990s. It will also look at the main differences between the concept of an underclass and the concept of social exclusion and why this distinction is important. Charles Murray and the Underclass Charles Murray is an American and his theory of the underclass was originally developed in over there. He saw an increase in violent crime, a rise in the number of illegitimate births and people dropping out from the labour force, it was on this basis that he formed his theory of a developing underclass. He then attempted to apply this theory to the UK where he observed similar phenomenon taking place. Some of his views led to heated debates, particularly with regard to single mothers, during the Thatcher and Major governments and under New Labour. Unlike America, Britain is more of a welfare state, or was at the time, and he believed that the over provision of welfare services encouraged welfare dependency and a decreasing desire to work for a living (Murray, 1989). Greater welfare provision, he argued encouraged young girls to have children out of wedlock because they no longer had to rely on a man to support them and their child. The culture of dependency that Murray identified, did, he argued, have a generational aspect. Young males growing up without proper role models ran wild and fathered illegitimate children themselves thus continuing a dependency culture. Debates in England His arguments were welcomed by the then Conservative Government who had already vowed to roll back the welfare state. Claiming themselves to be the party of the family (Giddens, 2001) they agreed with Murray that those who did not work should not have children. Those who did have children out of wedlock and could not support them should have their benefits stopped and be forced to give their children up for adoption. Throughout the 1990s this view was espoused by a number of British politicians who aired their views on television debating shows. Although this did not happen, successive Governments have tightened their hold on benefits purse strings and made life much harder for those who have to live on welfare benefits. This had further repercussions in policy making in the UK. The Housing Act of 1996 was seen by many as a result of these debates and deleted some groups from local authority housing lists those people e.g. single mothers, who had been a priority when it came to local authority housing allocation, thus reducing the responsibility towards the homeless for local authorities. It also brought in the Single Persons Homeless Register, thus reducing responsibility for those who would have been seen as in priority need (Bramley et al, 2005). During this time increased unemployment left large numbers dependent on benefits. The number of those who are long-term unemployed also rose. Social changes and successive government policies has widened the gap between rich and poor. Field (1996) has argued that the actions of the Conservative Government in targeting benefits through means testing, actually increased welfare dependency and put people into an inescapable poverty trap. Field further maintains that these policies were a major factor in the developm ent of an underclass in Britain. However, in Field’s view the blame rests squarely on the shoulders of the Thatcher and Major governments. The Underclass and Ethnicity Some of Murray’s views might be considered racist, in that he claims that black people are less intelligent than whites and black women are more likely to have illegitimate children and live on benefits. Giddens supports Murray’s ideas of an underclass and (albeit for market reasons rather than the reasons given by Murray) also argues that a dual labour market is in operation and as a result of discrimination the underclass contains a high proportion of people from ethnic minorities. Much of what he has to say pre-empts Murray’s work as it was written in 1973. Where ethnic differences serves as a disqualifying market capacity, such that those in the category are heavily concentrated in the lowest paid occupations, or are chronically unemployed or self-employed, we may speak of the existence of and underclass (Giddens, 1973:112). Gaillie (1994) has questioned the arguments of Murray and Giddens. He disputes the idea that the underclass develops a specific culture and maintains that there is little evidence to support the existence of a dual labour market. He does however, acknowledge that the position of many people in the labour market has been weakened to the point where they are working for slave wages. While this does tend to support the existence of an underclass, Gaillie refutes the notion that such groups are forming either a class or a culture. Murray’s Later Work Writing in 1999 Murray observed that unemployment among young males was much higher than ten years earlier. He disputes the findings of others when he maintains that there was no evidence to suggest that this was the result of a shrinking market. He cites a rise in crime rates, particularly violent crime as further evidence that an underclass sin Britain is developing in the same way as in America. These figures are however disputed by other theorists who would argue that although the crime rate is high it has been on a downturn. He also refers again to the number of single parent families, but figures in Britain evidence that the majority of single parent families are that way as a result of divorce or the death of a partner, rather than the never married single mother. Some of what Murray has to say takes little account of other social problems that may contribute to people living on the margins of society. Some of the groups that Murray refers to might be said to be socially exclu ded, but this is not the same thing as an underclass. Social Exclusion Social exclusion is a term used in a variety of ways but is generally seen to refer to those people who for one reason or another are not fully included in the social life of a community. The reasons for social exclusion are connected, and are poverty, unemployment, and a lack of education. These are not only reasons however, where a person lives, their ethnicity, sexual orientation, or disabilities are also reasons why they might be regarded as excluded. Government recognises that they cannot tackle social exclusion unless they adopt an approach that deals with all these issues together (ODPM, 2004). However, much Government discourse tends to make little distinction between the socially excluded and an underclass because many of its documents refer to single parent families, anti-social behaviour and youth crime. This is wrong because people can be socially excluded without being part of a sub-culture or underclass, if such a thing exists. Social exclusion is a process that stops p eople from fully participating in society (Giddens, 2001) whereas the concept of an underclass implies that some people choose to opt out of society. Conclusion Although there are times where Murray presents a convincing argument, it is not convincing enough to be able to say that there really is an underclass in Britain. Too many different forces could account for the increase in the number of people on benefits, not least a shrinking labour market which Murray refuses to acknowledge, even though many theorist will agree that this is a global phenomenon. Some points that he makes could place people in the category of socially excluded, but as this paper has attempted to establish that is not the same thing as being a member of an underclass. It is certainly the case that some groups of people are a lot less fortunate than others. Many single parents are forced to rely on benefits because if they go to work they will be even worse off. The costs of childcare are astronomical. In conclusion I would say that the evidence does not support Murray’s theory of an underclass. It does tend to suggest that we live in a society where the gap be tween rich and poor gets wider every day. This in turn means that people are excluded from full social participation e.g. many parents cannot afford for their children to go on school trips. People who live in poorer areas go to the worst schools and so exclusion becomes a vicious circle, but that is not the same thing as saying an underclass is developing in Britain. Bibliography Bramley et al, 2005 Evaluation of English Housing Policy 1975-2002 Field, F. 1996. Stakeholder Welfare. London, IEA Gaillie, D 1994 â€Å" Are the unemployed and underclass? Some evidence from the social change and economic life initiative† Sociology 28, 3 pp737-757 Giddens A 1973 The Class Structure of the Advanced Societies London, Hutchinson Giddens A 2001 Sociology 4th ed Cambridge Polity Murray, C 1989 Underclass Sunday Times Magazine I 26th November Murray, C 2000 Underclass+10 Charles Murray and the British Underclass 1990-2000 London, Civitas in association with The Sunday Times ODPM, 2004. Theme 1: Supply, Need and Access London ODPM Walsh, I ed. 2000 Sociology: Making Sense of Society. Edinburgh, Prentice Hall.

Women and Depression: Understanding the Gender Gap

Depression, if gets too severe becomes bad for a person. It not only affects the person himself but it also affects that person’s family also affecting his work or school as well as personal life and his sleeping and eating habits as well. Depression also affects the well being of a person in a way that it leads to chronic medical conditions like diabetics. Women usually think that they can work through a depression on their own, knowing this fact that they suffer from depression more frequently than men do. They may get the wrong idea that the low risk related with medication management of depression, they may also believe that since they are smart diligent people an analyst or psychologist will be of no aid; these wrong beliefs are, regrettably very common. Sometimes medications for depression may have irritating side effects, such as insomnia, agitation, or sleepiness, but grave effects are very odd. Women with a true depression are suffering, such inconvenient, non-life intimidating side effects, which may diminish soon, nevertheless, are likely to be much more bearable than untreated depression for a lot of women. Repeatedly studies have revealed that either counseling or medication therapy, or both mutually, are really useful in securely relieving depression in both men and women. Biological factors behind depression for women There come into view to be significant links between mood changes and reproductive health events, gender differences in toll of depression emerge when females go through puberty and stay high throughout the childbearing years and into late middle period. Hormonal factors appear to play a function in some of the mood disturbance practiced by women, twenty to forty percent of menstruating women practice premenstrual temper and behavioral changes. Approximately two to ten percent of women experience Premenstrual Dysphoric Disorder, as several as ten to fifteen percent of women experience a clinical depression throughout pregnancy or subsequent to the birth of a baby. There also come into view to be an increase in depression during the perimenopausal period. An additional biological issue that may add to gender differences in depression can be connected to circadian rhythm patterns, the complex structure that regulates sleep and action over each 24-hour period. Depressed women report more hypersomnia (too much sleeping) than do men. The role of premenstrual factors in depression Hormonal fluctuations throughout the menstrual cycle can cause the common symptoms of premenstrual syndrome (PMS), for instance irritability, fatigue, bloating and emotional reactivity. For most of the women, PMS is easygoing, but for a number of women, symptoms are harsh enough to upset their lives and a diagnosis of premenstrual dysphoric chaos (PMDD) is made. Though the precise relation among depression and premenstrual syndrome remains vague, some examines say that cyclical modifications in progesterone, estrogen and additional hormones can upset the role of brain chemicals for instance serotonin that manage mood. Still, since such hormonal changes take place in the majority of women, but not all women build up depression, hormonal changes can't be the merely reason of depression in women. Genetic predisposition or other issues also can manipulate the development of depression. Postpartum depression Depression subsequent to childbirth is known as postpartum depression, hormonal changes may activate symptoms of postpartum depression, while a woman is pregnant, stages of the female hormones estrogen and progesterone boosts greatly. In the initial 24 hours following childbirth, hormone levels rapidly return to standard. Researchers believe the huge change in hormone levels may direct to depression. Levels of thyroid hormones can also fall after giving birth, which causes symptoms of depression. Role of perimenopause and menopause in a woman’s depression Perimenopause is the middle period earlier than menopause, which is marked by a twelve month’s termination of a woman’s menstrual cycle, throughout perimenopause, hormones change radically and few women feel an alteration in mood, anxiety and depression. Throughout this phase of transition, women start thinking about their achievements up to this point, women frequently view this time as a turning end, not only are perimenopausa l women examining their life thus far, they are practicing hormonal changes that are influencing them physically. Negative and positive role of social and cultural factors in a woman’s depression Role strain – Women frequently undergo role strain over contradictory and irresistible responsibilities in their life, the additional roles a woman is expected to play (mother, wife, working woman), the extra vulnerable she is to role strain and following stress and depression. Research specifies that single mothers are three times more probable than married mothers to practice an episode of main depression. Costello, 1993). Unequal power and status – Women’s comparative lack of power and position in society may direct to feelings of helplessness, this sense of helplessness puts women at larger risk for depression, and these feelings may be aggravated by discrimination in the place of work leading to underemployment or being without a job. An additional causal factor is society’s importance on youth, beauty, and thinness in women, traits which to a great level are out of their control. Sexual and physical abuse – Women are a lot more likely to be sexually abused than men, and researchers have found that sexual abuse in childhood puts one at enlarged risk for depression in maturity. Higher rates of depression are also found among sufferers of rape. Poverty – Poverty is more general among women than men, single mothers have the uppermost rates of poverty transversely all demographic groups. Poverty is a harsh, chronic stressor than can direct to depression. The positive affects of depression are that when the women have to live with less, they eventually learn to live with it and when they do not have a job, they will have more free time to spend with the family and friends. Moreover, it is good as it always gives way to struggle and makes art and music better. How does one go about getting treatment? Make healthy lifestyle changes Lifestyle alterations are never easy to make, but if altered can have a big impact on depression, self-help strategies that can be very effectual comprise: ? develop helpful relationships ? regular exercise and sufficient sleep Healthy, mood-boosting diet ? Stress management and practice relaxation methods ? confront negative thought patterns Seek professional help Professional help contains some form of therapy that gives tools to handle depression from a diversity of angles, a number of therapies teach practical techniques on how to reframe negative thoughts and employ behavioral abilities in fighting depre ssion can also assist working out through the origin of depression, helping understand why he or she feels a certain way, what triggers are for depression, and what he or she can do to stay healthy. Do you think women are more likely to seek out treatment? Why or why not? Women, first and foremost wives and daughters, provide the bulk of care giving, specifically in the United States, about 12 million women practice depression each year, at about twice the pace of men. A recent study found that many women do not look for treatment for depression since they are embarrassed or in refutation about being depressed, in fact, forty one percent of women reviewed cited embarrassment or disgrace as obstruction to treatment. What do you think it means to be a woman? Being female has nothing to act with being lesser or second class; it has to do with execution in a God-ordained role, from the commencement, God tells us that women, like men, were formed in His image and likeness, but as both sexes are equivalent in significance and potential, their roles are very diverse. That’s the reason why men and women think and act in a different way and that is why they look unlike. â€Å"It is not fine that the man should be unaccompanied; I will make him a help meet for him†. Manonly was not an entire creation, he needed aid, so God gave him a helpmeet, one who would execute the contrary role – so that united together the two might turn into one complete flesh.

Rome’s Via Dei Fori Imperiali

Via dei Fori Imperiali Millions of tourists flock to the eternal city every year to look at the many beautiful and grandiose sites of Rome. What many might not realize is that in the 18th century Mussolini had a plan to restructure, and tear down many of important monuments that define Roman heritage, and he did just this. Benito Mussolini built the road known as Via dei Fori Imperiali in 1931-1933. Mussolini wanted a way to brand Rome with his distinct Fascist ideals.Via dei Fori Imperiali was first built with the idea that it would house many triumphal marches or parades. Mussolini also wanted to form a physical and symbolic link between Piazza Venezia, the headquarters of the fascist movement to the Roman Forum, the epitome of Roman power and strength, and all the way to the Colosseum. Many obstacles lay in Mussolini’s way, to start with many important and historic monuments but also little villages and houses that housed 746 of Rome’s poorest families.The dense amou nt of poor Romans living in the once- Alessandrino neighborhood, could not argue or protest against the tearing down of there homes precisely because they had no political power or even money to make any objection at the time. Apart from kicking thousands of people out of their homes, Mussolini also managed to destroy many millennia- old structures. To name a few Mussolini demolished the churches of San Lorenzo ai Monti and Santa Maria degli Angeli in Macello Martyrum. He also partially eradicated the forums of Caesar, Augustus, Trajan, Vespasian and Nerva.By building this road Mussolini completely changed the landscape of Rome, cutting completely the Forum area in two. Like many overbearing leaders Mussolini had the vision of creating a â€Å"new† Rome, one that had rid itself of the domineering aura of history. Mussolini wanted to make new open spaces that were not cluttered by history. He wanted to leave his own mark on the Country, and in his opinion the only way to do th is was to tear down thousands years of historic monuments and to displace thousands of people.Mussolini modeled himself on Julius Caesar, yet his role model was the first emperor Augustus. Mussolini admired the rulers of the ancient Roman Empire and strived to be like them yet with his arrogance he felt he needed to build bigger, better buildings than the Romans had built, he needed to make Rome the grandest it had ever been. ——————————————– [ 1 ]. http://www. heritage-key. com/rome/dei-fori-imperiali-mussolinis-fascist-route-through-rome

Same Sex Marriage Should Be Legal - 1762 Words

Countless persons are against same sex marriage but in some ways support it. Many same sex marriage adversaries differ centered only on the use of the word marriage. Those adversaries to same sex marriage feel that the term marriage is defined by the public or religious beliefs and should be in some degree limited to only a relationship between man and woman. There is a discussion over what to call same sex marriage however it falls into account the true nature of what gays seek and opponents oppose. Gays seek full marriage equality in every way not the separate but equal status. Since marriage is a basic human right and an individual personal choice, the state should not interfere with same gender couples who choose to marry and share fully and equally in the rights, responsibilities, and commitment. Why did the gay society need same sex marriage legalized? Well, the answer is pretty simple. There are benefits to marriage that only legitimately married couples can delight in, including hospital visitation, taxation and heritage rights, family health coverage, and protection in the event of a divorce. It is not a matter of money or heritage; furthermore it is a substance of sharing what you have with your spouse as an act of love. Since same sex marriage is still deemed abnormal by the society, I believe that only a homosexual couple who really love each other can have bravery to actually be married, hence ensuring that their marriage will be a prosperous one, in contrastShow MoreRelatedSame Sex Marriage Should Be Legal1288 Words   |  6 Pages Marriage is not precisely the same as it used to be interpreted. For example, women used to be their husband’s property. Sometimes the women were forced to marry whoever their parents wanted them to marry and most of the time they couldn’t leave the marriage. Nowadays women have more freedom. 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ProCon.org supplies information that â€Å"Twenty-six states were forced to legalize gay marriage becauseRead MoreSame Sex Marriage Should Be Legal2253 Words   |  10 Pages1776). The recognition of same-sex marriage is an issue influenced by numerous factors, and debates continue to arise over whether people in same-sex relationships have the right to marriage. Marriage provides many benefits, legally, financially, and personally. Same-sex marriage can open up those in same-sex relationships to tax benefits and financial demands comparable to those afforded to and required of peo ple in opposite-sex marriages. Same-sex marriage also gives them legal protections, such as